Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.2 The Buddha’s Birth Stories On this page: 0 of 2 attempted (0%) | 0 of 2 correct (0%)

Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.2 The Buddha’s Birth Stories On this page: 0 of 2 attempted (0%) | 0 of 2 correct (0%)

The Buddha’s Birth Stories By Lynn Cianfarani

The exterior of the Ajanta Caves where they were cut into the stone on the side of a cliff by the Waghur River in India. These cave monuments, which date from the second century

BCE to about 480 or 650 CE, house depictions of Buddha and the Jātaka Tales. Photo courtesy of Shriram Rajagopalan / Flickr Creative Commons

In one of his former lives, Buddha was born a pigeon. That is, at least, how it is recounted in “The Pigeon and the Crow,” one of the 547 stories in the Jātaka Tales, a classic work of Buddhist literature.

Each of the Jātaka Tales offers readers a moral. The pigeon story, for instance, highlights the dangers of greed. But the stories are more than just fables. They are sacred Buddhist lore, outlining the lives that Buddha passed through before his birth as Prince Siddhartha. Jātaka literally means “story of birth,” and in the stories, Buddha (referred to in the Tales as the Bodhisatta—“one seeking enlightenment”) is born and

reborn in the form of animals, humans, and super-human beings, all the while striving toward enlightenment.

For Buddhists, the concept of past lives is hallowed. According to Robert Thurman, a professor of Indo-Tibetan Buddhist Studies at Columbia University, “Buddhists see the continuum of lives of all beings as a commonsense fact, not a mystical belief.”1 Buddhist faith teaches that ordinary humans do not remember past existences, but enlightened beings have the gift of recalling their former lives in detail.2

Buddhists who hear the Jātaka Tales do not necessarily take them as a word-for-word accounting of past events, however. Devdutt Pattanaik, a Mumbai-based speaker, writer, and mythology specialist, says that the Jātaka Tales “are as real and historical to Buddhists as the stories of Christ’s resurrection are to Christians.”3 For most Buddhists, whether Buddha actually lived as a pigeon is not the issue; what matters is that Buddha did indeed have past existences which lessons can be learned from.

Reliable historical details of Buddha’s life—his early years as Siddhartha Gutam, and later, as the enlightened Buddha—are hard to come by. According to W.S. Merwin, a Pulitzer Prize winning poet, we don’t know how much of the Buddha/Siddhartha story “is pure fairy tale, and how much of it is historic fact.”4 As with most religions, it’s the message that guides followers.

Most scholars do accept that Siddhartha Gutam was an actual man, born to a royal family in India in 563 BCE. The factual events of his life, however, remain open to debate. According to Buddhist texts, Siddhartha married and had a child, but became disillusioned with palace life. He started to make trips outside the palace and grew distraught when he saw sickness, old age, and death.

In hopes of figuring out a way to end people’s suffering, Siddhartha left his family and his palace. For several years, Buddhist tradition holds, Siddhartha practiced asceticism. He sat in meditation and ate little; sometimes he ate nothing. Enduring hardship, however, only weakened him and offered little spiritual insight. Overdoing things, Siddhartha realized, was not the key to happiness. Siddhartha committed himself to the middle way, the path between extreme sacrifice and self-indulgence.

Legend has it that after giving up his ascetic lifestyle, Siddhartha sat under a Bodhi tree (a type of fig tree) for deep meditation, vowing not to leave until he reached a state of enlightenment. After several weeks of intense meditation he had gained a supreme wisdom—a mental clarity that included details of his past lives—and Siddhartha, at last, understood things as they truly are. He thus became, Buddhists posit, the Buddha, or “The Awakened One.” Today, the image of the Buddha meditating under a tree is as symbolic to Buddhists as the image of Christ nailed to the cross is to Christians.

After reaching enlightenment, Buddha shared his new wisdom with five holy men. They became his disciples, marking the beginning of the Buddhist community. For more than 40 years, Buddha and his disciples wandered throughout India spreading his teachings. The Jātaka Tales, of course, were part of these teachings.

Buddha’s birth stories moved beyond India, too, traveling via caravan routes and eventually influencing other cultures. According to archaeological and literary evidence the Jātaka stories were not compiled as text until somewhere between the 3rd century BCE and the 5th century CE.5 Written by multiple anonymous authors in a combination of prose and verse, the stories are included as part of the Buddhist canon, and continue to be part of Buddhist teachings. Each year, the Dalai Lama himself greets followers for a Jātaka Tales reading. In February 2013, thousands showed up in Dharasalama, India to hear him recite tale 29, “A Visitor from Brahmaloka,” a story of how a king overcomes his wrong views and develops humility.6

The stories of the Buddha’s many varied experiences have been shaping beliefs and values for centuries, and have deeply influenced various national cultures. In Thailand’s minority Laopuan community, until relatively recently it was customary for a woman to stay confined at home for several days after the birth of her first child. During this time her husband and others would stay by her side, reading—and sometimes chanting—the Jātaka Tales, presumably to convey moral lessons to the wife. This practice has been declining, but lessons from the Jātaka Tales continue to guide Thai society.7

The Tales have also served as the inspiration for art and architecture throughout Asia. The paintings and sculptures of the Ajanta Caves of India, which date back to the 2nd century BCE, depict Buddha and the Jātaka Tales and are a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage site—a designation given to select spots around the world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity.8

Photographs of the inside and outside of the Ajanta Caves. The first shows a doorway surrounded by architecture with depictions of the Jataka Tales, and the second shows an inner room with many pillars and a structure with more images on it.

The Ajanta Caves in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, India. Photo Arian Zwegers / Flickr Creative Commons

And like those cave-carved renderings of the Jātaka Tales, the stories themselves speak to a wider audience than just Buddhist societies. All of us can relate to these timeless tales of human behavior. In the five Jātaka Tales you are about to read—Chronicles of Kings… of Birds… of Hares—you’ll see that these birth tales are absorbing accounts of ancient India, intriguing pieces of literature, and enchanting stories of kindness, compassion, and giving.

Multiple Choice Question

What is the primary intention of the Jātaka Tales? Choose the BEST answer.

to humanize wild animals to offer specific guidelines on how to successfully rule to provide amusing stories to entertain people with to demonstrate how to live with compassion and kindness

Multiple Choice Question

Which of the following details about the Buddha are accepted by scholars?

He was born into a privileged family in India in the sixth century BCE. The Dalai Lama is his modern-day incarnation. He once lived as a pigeon. He was crucified, just like Jesus.

1 Robert Thurman, personal communication with author, January 2, 2014.

2 F. Max Muller, preface to Jātakamālā or Garland of Birth Stories, trans. J.S. Speyer (London: 2010), ix, http://www.ancient-buddhist-texts.net/English-Texts/Garland-of- Birth-Stories/Garland-of-Birth-Stories.pdf.

3 Devdutt Pattanaik, personal communication with author, January 3, 2014.

4 W.S. Merwin, “The Buddha,” PBS.org, accessed January 11, 2014, http://www.pbs.org/thebuddha/.

5 Ruwan M, Jayatunge M.D., “Psychological Aspects of Jātaka Stories,” Buddhist Society of Queensland. accessed January 4, 2013, http://vgweb.org/bsq/jatpsy.htm.

6 “His Holiness the Dalai Lama Reads a Jataka Tale on the Day of Miracles,” Dalailama.com. accessed January 4, 2013, http://www.dalailama.com/news/post/913- his-holiness-the-dalai-lama-reads-a-jataka-tale-on-the-day-of-miracles.

7 Pranee Wongthet, “The Jataka Stories and Laopuan Worldview,” Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 48, No. 1 (1989): pp. 21-30, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1178532.

8 “Ajanta Caves,” WHC.UNESCO.org. accessed January 4, 2013, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/242.

Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.3 Jātaka Tales: Great King Goodness On this page: 0 of 2 attempted (0%) | 0 of 1 correct (0%)

The Jātaka Tales Translated by H.T. Francis & E.J. Thomas

Bhutanese painted thangka of the Jātaka Tales, 18th-19th century, Phajoding monastery, Thimphu, Bhutan.

Great King Goodness

Once on a time when Brahmadatta was reigning in Benares, the Bodhisatta came to life again as the child of the queen; and on his name-day they gave him the name of Prince Goodness (Silava). At the age of sixteen his education was complete; and later he came at his father’s death to be king, and ruled his people righteously under the title of the great King Goodness. At each of the four city-gates he built an almonry, another in the heart of the city, and yet another at his own palace-gates, six in all; and at each he distributed alms to poor travellers and the needy. He kept the Commandments and observed the fast-days; he abounded in patience, loving-kindness, and mercy; and in

righteousness he ruled the land, cherishing all creatures alike with the fond love of a father for his baby boy.

Now one of the king’s ministers had dealt treacherously in the king’s harem, and this became matter of common talk. The ministers reported it to the king. Examining into the matter himself, the king found the minister’s guilt to be clear. So he sent for the culprit, and said, “O blinded by folly! You have sinned, and are not worthy to dwell in my kingdom; take your substance and your wife and family, and go hence.” Driven thus from the realm, that minister left the Kasi country, and entering the service of the king of Kosala, gradually rose to be that monarch’s confidential adviser. One day he said to the king of Kosala, “Sire, the kingdom of Benares is like a goodly honeycomb untainted by flies; its king is feebleness itself; and a trifling force would suffice to conquer the whole country.”

Hereon, the king of Kosala reflected that the kingdom of Benares was large, and, considering this in connexion with the advice that a trifling force could conquer it, he grew suspicious that his adviser was a hireling suborned to lead him into a trap. “Traitor,” he cried, “you are paid to say this!”

“Indeed I am not,” answered the other; “I do but speak the truth. If you doubt me, send men to massacre a village over his border, and see whether, when they are caught and brought before him, the king does not let them off scot-free and even load them with gifts.”

“He shews a very bold front in making his assertion,” thought the king; “I will test his counsel without delay.” And accordingly he sent some of his creatures to harry a village across the Benares border. The ruffians were captured and brought before the king of Benares, who asked them, saying, “My children, why have you killed my villagers?”

“Because we could not make a living,” said they.

“Then why did you not come to me?” said the king. “See that you do not do the like again.”

And he gave them presents and sent them away. Back they went and told this to the king of Kosala. But this evidence was not enough to nerve him to the expedition; and a second band was sent to massacre another village, this time in the heart of the kingdom. These too were likewise sent away with presents by the king of Benares. But even this evidence was not deemed strong enough; and a third party was sent to plunder the very streets of Benares. And these, like their forerunners, were sent away with presents! Satisfied at last that the king of Benares was an entirely good king, the king of Kosala resolved to seize on his kingdom, and set out against him with troops and elephants.

Now in these days the king of Benares had a thousand gallant warriors, who would face the charge even of a rut elephant, whom the launched thunderbolt of Indra could not terrify, a matchless band of invincible heroes ready at the king’s command to reduce all India to his sway! These, hearing the king of Kosala was coming to take Benares, came to their sovereign with the news, and prayed that they might be despatched against the invader. “We will defeat and capture him, sire,” said they, “before he can set foot over the border.”

“Not so, my children,” said the king. “None shall suffer because of me. Let those who covet kingdoms seize mine, if they will.” And he refused to allow them to march against the invader.

Then the king of Kosala crossed the border and came to the middle-country; and again the ministers went to the king with renewed entreaty. But still the king refused. And now the king of Kosala appeared outside the city, and sent a message to the king bidding him either yield up the kingdom or give battle. “I fight not,” was the message of the king of Benares in reply; “let him seize my kingdom.”

Yet a third time the king’s ministers came to him and besought him not to allow the king of Kosala to enter, but to permit them to overthrow and capture him before the city. Still refusing, the king bade the city-gates be opened, and seated himself in state aloft upon his royal throne with his thousand ministers round him.

Entering the city and finding none to bar his way, the king of Kosala passed with his army to the royal palace. The doors stood open wide; and there on his gorgeous throne with his thousand ministers around him sat the great King Goodness in state. “Seize them all,” cried the king of Kosala; “tie their hands tightly behind their backs, and away with them to the cemetery! There dig holes and bury them alive up to the neck, so that they cannot move hand or foot. The jackals will come at night and give them sepulchre!”

At the bidding of the ruffianly king, his followers bound the king of Benares and his ministers, and hauled them off. But even in this hour not so much as an angry thought did the great King Goodness harbour against the ruffians; and not a man among his ministers, even when they were being marched off in bonds, could disobey the king, so perfect is said to have been the discipline among his followers.

So King Goodness and his ministers were led off and buried up to the neck in pits in the cemetery, the king in the middle and the others on either side of him. The ground was trampled in upon them, and there they were left. Still meek and free from anger against his oppressor, King Goodness exhorted his companions, saying, “Let your hearts be filled with naught but love and charity, my children.”

Multiple Choice Question

How did King Goodness respond to the threat from the king of Kosala?

He sent a minister out to neighboring kingdoms to wrangle up support. He did nothing. He mustered up a thousand warriors to repel the invasions led by the king of Kosala. He begged the king of Kosala to leave his people be.

Now at midnight the jackals came trooping to the banquet of human flesh; and at sight of the beasts the king and his companions raised a mighty shout all together, frightening the jackals away. Halting, the pack looked back, and, seeing no one pursuing, again came forward. A second shout drove them away again, but only to return as before. But the third time, seeing that not a man amongst them all pursued, the jackals thought to themselves, “These must be men who are doomed to death.” They came on boldly; even when the shout was again being raised, they did not turn tail. On they came, each singling out his prey, the chief jackal making for the king, and the other jackals for his companions. Fertile in resource, the king marked the beast’s approach, and, raising his throat as if to receive the bite, fastened his teeth in the jackal’s throat with a grip like a vice! Unable to free its throat from the mighty grip of the king’s jaws, and fearing death, the jackal raised a great howl. At his cry of distress the pack conceived that their leader must have been caught by a man. With no heart left to approach their own destined prey, away they all scampered for their lives.

Seeking to free itself from the king’s teeth, the trapped jackal plunged madly to and fro, and thereby loosened the earth above the king. Hereupon the latter, letting the jackal go, put forth his mighty strength, and by plunging from side to side got his hands free! Then, clutching the brink of the pit, he drew himself up, and came forth like a cloud scudding before the wind. Bidding his companions be of good cheer, he now set to work to loosen the earth round them and to get them out, till with all his ministers he stood free once more in the cemetery.

Now it chanced that a corpse had been exposed in that part of the cemetery, which lay between the respective domains of two goblins; and the goblins were disputing over the division of the spoil.

“We can’t divide it ourselves,” said they; “but this King Goodness is righteous; he will divide it for us. Let us go to him.” So they dragged the corpse by the foot to the king, and said, “Sire, divide this man and give us each our share.”

“Certainly I will, my friends,” said the king. “But, as I am dirty, I must bathe first.”

Straightway, by their magic power, the goblins brought to the king the scented water prepared for the usurper’s bath. And when the king had bathed, they brought him the robes which had been laid out for the usurper to wear. When he had put these on, they brought his majesty a box containing the four kinds of scent. When he had perfumed himself, they brought flowers of diverse kinds laid out upon jewelled fans, in a casket of gold. When he had decked himself with the flowers, the goblins asked whether they could be of any further service. And the king gave them to understand that he was hungry.

So away went the goblins, and returned with rice flavoured with all the choicest flavours, which had been prepared for the usurper’s table. And the king, now bathed and scented, dressed and arrayed, ate of the dainty fare. Thereupon the goblins brought the usurper’s perfumed water for him to drink, in the usurper’s own golden bowl, not forgetting to bring the golden cup too. When the king had drunk and had washed his mouth and was washing his hands, they brought him fragrant betel to chew, and asked whether his majesty had any further commands. “Fetch me,” said he, “by your magic power the sword of state which lies by the usurper’s pillow.” And straightway the sword was brought to the king. Then the king took the corpse, and setting it upright, cut it in two down the chine, giving one-half to each goblin. This done, the king washed the blade, and girded it on his side.

Having eaten their fill, the goblins were glad of heart, and in their gratitude asked the king what more they could do for him. “Set me by your magic power,” said he, “in the usurper’s chamber, and set each of my ministers back in his own house.”

“Certainly, sire,” said the goblins; and forthwith it was done. Now in that hour the usurper was lying asleep on the royal bed in his chamber of state. And as he slept in all tranquillity, the good king struck him with the flat of the sword upon the belly. Waking up in a fright, the usurper saw by the lamp-light that it was the great King Goodness. Summoning up all his courage, he rose from his couch and said: “Sire, it is night; a guard is set; the doors are barred; and none may enter. How then came you to my bedside, sword in hand and clad in robes of splendour?”

Then the king told him in detail all the story of his escape. Then the usurper’s heart was moved within him, and he cried, “O king, I, though blessed with human nature, knew not your goodness; but knowledge thereof was given to the fierce and cruel goblins, whose food is flesh and blood. Henceforth, I, sire, will not plot against such signal virtue as you possess.” So saying, he swore an oath of friendship upon his sword and begged the king’s forgiveness. And he made the king lie down upon the bed of state, while he stretched himself upon a little couch.

On the morrow at daybreak, when the sun had risen, his whole host of every rank and degree was mustered by beat of drum at the usurper’s command; in their presence he extolled King Goodness, as if raising the full-moon on high in the heavens; and right before them all, he again asked the king’s forgiveness and gave him back his kingdom, saying, “Henceforth, let it be my charge to deal with rebels; rule thou thy kingdom, with me to keep watch and ward.” And so saying, he passed sentence on the slanderous traitor, and with his troops and elephants went back to his own kingdom.

Seated in majesty and splendour beneath a white umbrella of sovereignty upon a throne of gold with legs as of a gazelle, the great King Goodness contemplated his own glory and thought thus within himself: “Had I not persevered, I should not be in the enjoyment of this magnificence, nor would my thousand ministers be still numbered among the living. It was by perseverance that I recovered the royal state I had lost, and saved the lives of my thousand ministers. Verily, we should strive on unremittingly with dauntless hearts, seeing that the fruit of perseverance is so excellent.” And therewithal the king broke into this heartfelt utterance:

Toil on, my brother; still in hope stand fast; Nor let thy courage flag and tire. Myself I see, who, all my woes o’erpast, Am master of my heart’s desire.

Thus spoke the Bodhisatta in the fulness of his heart, declaring how sure it is that the earnest effort of the good will come to maturity. After a life spent in right-doing he passed away to fare thereafter according to his deserts.

Response Board Question Compare and contrast the virtues offered in this story with your own.

No response saved yet.

Originally published in Jātaka Tales, translated by H.T. Francis and E.J. Thomas (Cambridge University Press, 1912). Public domain.

Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.4 Jātaka Tales: The Golden Goose On this page: 0 of 1 attempted (0%) | 0 of 1 correct (0%)

The Golden Goose

Once upon a time when Brahmadatta was reigning in Benares, the Bodhisatta was born a brahmin, and growing up was married to a bride of his own rank, who bore him three daughters named Nanda, Nandavati and Sundarinanda. The Bodhisatta dying, they were taken in by neighbours and friends, whilst he was born again into the world as a golden goose endowed with consciousness of its former existences. Growing up, the bird viewed his own magnificent size and golden plumage, and remembered that previously he had been a human being. Discovering that his wife and daughters were living on the charity of others, the goose bethought him of his plumage like hammered and beaten gold and how by giving them a golden feather at a time he could enable his wife and daughters to live in comfort. So away he flew to where they dwelt and alighted on the top of the central beam of the roof. Seeing the Bodhisatta, the wife and girls asked where he had come from; and he told them that he was their father who had died and been born a golden goose, and that he had come to visit them and put an end to their miserable necessity of working for hire.

“You shall have my feathers,” said he, “one by one, and they will sell for enough to keep you all in ease and comfort.” So saying, he gave them one of his feathers and departed. And from time to time he returned to give them another feather, and with the proceeds of their sale these brahmin-women grew prosperous and quite well-to-do. But one day the mother said to her daughters, “There’s no trusting animals, my children. Who’s to say your father might not go away one of these days and never come back again? Let us use our time and pluck him clean next time he comes, so as to make sure of all his feathers.” Thinking this would pain him, the daughters refused. The mother in her greed called the golden goose to her one day when he came, and then took him with both hands and plucked him. Now the Bodhisatta’s feathers had this property that if they were plucked out against his wish, they ceased to be golden and became like a crane’s feathers. And now the poor bird, though he stretched his wings, could not fly, and the woman flung him into a barrel and gave him food there.

As time went on his feathers grew again (though they were plain white ones now), and he flew away to his own abode and never came back again.

Multiple Choice Question

Why did the woman and her three daughters need help from the goose?

Their greed had landed them into poverty. After their family patriarch died, they had no means of support. The daughters were too young to work. They didn’t have enough animals to raise a flock of geese.

Early World Literature 4 VIRTUE / Page 4.5 Jātaka Tales: The Foolhardy Jackal On this page: 0 of 1 attempted (0%)

The Foolhardy Jackal

Once on a time when Brahmadatta was reigning in Benares, the Bodhisatta was a maned lion and dwelt at Gold Den in the Himalayas. Bounding forth one day from his lair, he looked North and West, South and East, and roared aloud as he went in quest of prey. Slaying a large buffalo, he devoured the prime of the carcass, after which he went down to a pool, and having drunk his fill of crystal water turned to go towards his den. Now a hungry jackal, suddenly meeting the lion, and being unable to make his escape, threw himself at the lion’s feet. Being asked what he wanted, the jackal replied, “Lord, let me be your servant.”

“Very well,” said the lion; “serve me and you shall feed on prime meat.” So saying, he went with the jackal following to Gold Den. Thenceforth the lion’s leavings fell to the jackal, and he grew fat.

Lying one day in his den, the lion told the jackal to scan the valleys from the mountain top, to see whether there were any elephants or horses or buffaloes about, or any other animals of which he, the jackal, was fond. If any such were in sight, the jackal was to report and say with due obeisance, “Shine forth in thy might, Lord.” Then the lion promised to kill and eat, giving a part to the jackal. So the jackal used to climb the heights, and whenever he espied below beasts to his taste, he would report it to the lion, and falling at his feet, say, “Shine forth in thy might, Lord.” Hereon the lion would nimbly bound forth and slay the beast, even if it were a rutting elephant, and share the prime of the carcass with the jackal. Glutted with his meal, the jackal would then retire to his den and sleep.

Now as time went on, the jackal grew bigger and bigger till he grew haughty. “Have not I too four legs?” he asked himself. “Why am I a pensioner day by day on others’ bounty? Henceforth I will kill elephants and other beasts, for my own eating. The lion, king of beasts, only kills them because of the formula, ‘Shine forth in thy might, Lord.’ I’ll make the lion call out to me, ‘Shine forth in thy might, jackal,’ and then I’ll kill an elephant …